Toward comprehensive animal health surveillance for cattle in extensive systems: challenges
The continuous emergence of new infectious diseases, along with the reemergence of others previously controlled, poses one of the main challenges facing global health, both due to its health impact and its economic and social consequences. The recent experience of the COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the need to strengthen surveillance systems and to have mechanisms capable of detecting threats in time, facilitating a quick and effective response (WHO, 2023; González, 2025).
The One Health approach is based on the idea that human health, animal health, and the environment form an interdependent system.
From this perspective, the control of infectious diseases requires a coordinated action among these three areas, given that a significant proportion of the
diseases affecting humans are of animal origin.
Around 75% of emerging infections are zoonotic (WHO et al., 2019), which determines the close connection between animal health and public health.This interdependence highlights that addressing these threats cannot be done in isolation, but through a coordinated approach that also integrates the environment, less explored so far from a health perspective.
Traditionally, surveillance systems have combined two main approaches:
Passive surveillance Reporting and communication of any suspected disease based on the observation of compatible clinical signs or other disease indicators. |
Active surveillance Express and targeted search for disease evidence in the population generally based on a prior analysis (Hoinville et al., 2013). Some examples include the use of sentinel animals or slaughterhouse inspections. |
In the field of animal health, the joint application of both strategies has been fundamental for the control and, in some cases, eradication, of infectious diseases (OMSA, 2023).
However, their effectiveness can be limited when:
- Detection depends on the appearance of evident clinical signs/lesions.
- Pathogens circulate unnoticed for extended periods before manifesting in susceptible individuals.
This has driven the development of more proactive approaches capable of generating information continuously and identifying risk signals before the disease establishes itself in exports. |
In this regard, international organizations such as the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) have already made recommendations to improve surveillance methodologies and apply risk-based approaches, as outlined in the recent guidelines for avian influenza surveillance in cattle (El Masry et al., 2024).
These recommendations aim to improve early detection and strengthen response capacity, not replacing existing systems, but expanding their scope.
Implementing these approaches in practice is not always straightforward. In systems such as extensive livestock farming, the very characteristics of the production model pose significant challenges for animal health surveillance, making it necessary to adapt monitoring strategies to the reality of the field. |
Challenges for Animal Health Surveillance in Extensive Systems
Wildlife-Livestock Interaction
Over the years, various definitions have been proposed for extensive livestock farming, both from regulatory and technical-scientific perspectives.
Image 1. Cattle in extensive production system (VISAVET-UCM).
This model constitutes one of the most representative systems of the Spanish rural environment, especially in ecosystems such as the dehesas and mountain areas (Martín-Bellido et al., 2001), where extensive livestock farming plays a fundamental role in:
- Improvement of animal welfare
- Conservation of biodiversity
- Maintenance of the landscape
- Economic and social sustainability of the rural environment (Varijakshapanicker et al., 2019; MAPA, 2025).
Preserving extensive livestock systems and the benefits they provide largely depends on the maintenance of an adequate health status of the animals. In this regard, animal health surveillance plays a key role by:
Facilitating early detection of pathogens and reducing productive losses (Rushton, 2009).
Providing objective information on the health status of farms.
Strengthening traceability throughout the production chain, generating trust among consumers, distributors, and health authorities.
Together, these aspects contribute to improving the resilience of extensive livestock systems and their ability to respond to potential health risks, as well as the entire ecosystem in which they are integrated. |
Establishing effective animal health surveillance programs for extensive livestock farming is not always easy.
Their own characteristics, such as the large area of the farms, the spatial dispersion of the animals, and the close relationship with the environment, make it difficult to obtain systematic health information and continuously monitor epidemiological processes (MAGRAMA & IREC, 2015; Herrera et al., 2018; Herrera, 2020).
Among the factors that most condition surveillance is the constant interaction between livestock and wildlife (HerreroGarcía et al., 2024a) (Image 2).
Image 2. Wildlife-livestock interaction (VISAVET-UCM)
The shared use of resources such as pastures, ponds, streams, water troughs, or feeders creates multiple points of contact between species (especially in drier regions and times of resource scarcity, such as summer).
The points of interspecific interaction favor the circulation and maintenance of infectious agents in the ecosystem, constituting points of special epidemiological risk for the transmission of diseases between wildlife and livestock.
This is especially relevant for those pathogens with multiple hosts (Daszak et al., 2000; Barroso & Gortázar, 2024).
This situation is of particular importance in the Iberian Peninsula, where the close relationship between wild and domestic species favors the circulation of shared pathogens (Herrero-García et al., 2024b).
The existence of these pathogens is a growing concern worldwide due to their impact on animal production, farm profitability, wildlife conservation, and, in certain cases, public health (Gortázar et al., 2007; Martínez-Guijosa et al., 2021).
An example of this is animal tuberculosis, caused by bacteria belonging to the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC) (Kukielka et al., 2013; Barasona et al., 2017).
Tuberculosis represents just one of the many examples of shared diseases in these systems, as other pathogens such as Coxiella burnetii, Salmonella spp., or Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis can circulate between wildlife and livestock, contributing to the epidemiological complexity characteristic of extensive livestock farming (Marín-Rojo et al., 2025) |
In this scenario, identifying and controlling the factors that favor the transmission of infectious agents between wildlife and livestock is a priority for:
Improving animal health
Protecting public health
Preserving ecosystem balance
With this objective, the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) has recently developed the Risk Mitigation Programs, aimed at facilitating Veterinary Services to design interventions adapted to the epidemiological and productive characteristics of each territory (WOAH, 2026).
These guidelines (WOAH, 2025) promote a risk-based approach that includes:
The identification of the main factors involved in transmission
The characterization of interactions between wildlife and livestock
The evaluation of production systems and local risks
The strengthening of surveillance in slaughterhouses
The implementation of biosecurity measures adapted to each farm
The application of these measures also presents significant limitations in extensive systems.
For example, strategies aimed at reducing contact between wildlife and livestock, such as the installation of perimeter fencing, may be difficult to implement due to the large size of the farms, their economic cost, and their potential effects on ecological connectivity and wildlife mobility.
These limitations highlight the need to develop complementary surveillance tools, adapted to the particularities of extensive livestock farming.
Climate Change
Climate change represents one of the greatest challenges for extensive cattle farming, as its dependence on natural resources makes it particularly vulnerable. The increase in global average temperature, changes in precipitation patterns, and the greater frequency of extreme weather events compromise the health, productive, and economic sustainability of extensive livestock farms (IPCC, 2023).
Among its most relevant effects are:
The increase in thermal stress, which affects the livestock’s thermoregulation capacity and causes physiological alterations with negative consequences on health and welfare (Renaudeau et al., 2012).
The growing scarcity of water resources in Mediterranean regions, which increases competition among wildlife for water (FAO, 2015).
From a health perspective, climate change is altering the distribution and seasonality of numerous vectors and pathogens, favoring the emergence and spread of infectious diseases.
A paradigmatic example is bluetongue.
Conclusions
The comprehensive animal health surveillance should be understood as a key component for the future of extensive cattle farming.
Beyond responding to disease, the real challenge is to move towards systems capable of:
Anticipating risks.
Transforming data into useful knowledge.
Supporting more informed decisions.
An example of this approach is proposed in the SAGEMA Operational Group: Use of metagenomics through non-invasive samples to improve the health status, animal welfare, and sustainability in the native extensive cattle farming of the Community of Madrid (funded by the Community of Madrid -15%, European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development -80%- and the General State Administration -2%-) (10-GOE1-00003.4/2025).
This group is led by the Royal Spanish Association of Breeders of Select Avileña-Negra Ibérica Cattle and includes the Association of Breeders of Berrenda en Colorado and Berrenda en Negro Cattle of the Community of Madrid, the Madrid Institute for Rural, Agricultural and Food Research and Development (IMIDRA), the VISAVET center (UCM) and MAEVA-SERVET SL. with the technical collaboration of the Subdirectorate General of Agro-Food Production of the Directorate General of Agriculture, Livestock and Food (Community of Madrid).
Under the perspective of comprehensive health surveillance, the SAGEMA project implements advanced diagnostic systems based on massive sequencing techniques to continuously and accurately monitor the health of extensive cattle.
The use of these non-invasive tools will be studied as a key element to improve overall welfare while ensuring economic sustainability by preventing the adverse effects of infectious diseases. In this way, the value of native breeds is protected as pillars of a resilient and adapted livestock ecosystem.
These comprehensive systems will enable the construction of more resilient, sustainable livestock systems prepared for the health challenges of the future. This topic will be discussed in depth in the following article: TOWARDS INTEGRAL ANIMAL HEALTH SURVEILLANCE FOR CATTLE IN EXTENSIVE SYSTEMS: OPPORTUNITIES. |
Bibliography
- Barasona, J. A., Vicente, J., Díez-Delgado, I., Aznar, J., Gortázar, C., & Torres, M. J. 2017. Environmental Presence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex in Aggregation Points at the Wildlife/Livestock Interface. Transboundary and emerging diseases, 64(4):1148–1158. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.12480
- Barroso, P., & Gortázar, C. 2024. Thecoexistenceof wildlife and livestock. Animal frontiers: the review magazine of animal agriculture, 14(1): 5–12. https://doi.org/10.1093/af/vfad064
Comisión Europea. (2026, 26 de enero). Reglamento de Ejecución (UE) 2026/169 de la Comisión, de 26 de enero de 2026, por el que se modifica el anexo del Reglamento de Ejecución (UE) 2018/1882 en lo que respecta a la categorización de la infección por el virus de la lengua azul (serotipos 1-24) como enfermedad de la lista. Diario Oficial de la Unión Europea. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/ - Daszak, P., Cunningham, A. A., & Hyatt, A. D. 2000.Emerging infectious diseases of wildlife–threats to biodiversity and human health. Science (New York,N.Y.),287(5452), 443–449. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.287.5452.443
- Dirección General de Sanidad de la Producción Agraria de la Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente (MAGRAMA).,& Instituto de Invetigación de Recursos Cinegéticos (IREC). 2015. Guía práctica de bioseguridad en explotaciones de vacuno de carne. Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente y Asociación Española de Productores Vacuno de Carne (ASOPROVAC).
- El Masry, I., Delgado, A.H., Silva, G.O.D., Lyons, N.A. & Dhingra, M. 2024.Recommendationsfor the surveillance of influenza A(H5N1) in cattle – With broader application to other farmed mammals. FAO Animal Production and Health Guidelines, No. 37. https://doi.org/10.4060/cd3422en
- Foodand Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2015. Climate change and food security: risks and responses. Rome: FAO. Disponible en: https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a4fd8ac5-4582- 4a66-91b0-55abf642a400/content
- Foodand Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2023. The State of Food and Agriculture 2023. Revealing the true cost of food to transform agrifood systems. Rome: Fao. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc7724en
- González, M. 2025. 25 años de sanidad animal: Retos superados y futuros desafíos para nuestra ganadería. Revista técnica ganadera “Ganadería”, N 160.
- Gortázar, C.,Ferroglio, E.,Höfle, U., Frölich, K., & Vicente, J. 2007. Diseases shared between wildlife and livestock: a European perspective. Eur J Wildl Res 53: 241–256. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-007-0098-y
- Gortázar, C., Torres, M. J., Vicente, J., Acevedo, P., Reglero, M., de la Fuente, J., Negro, J. J., & Aznar-Martín, J. 2008.Bovine tuberculosis in
- Doñana Biosphere Reserve: the role of wild ungulates as disease reservoirs in the last Iberian lynx strongholds. PloS one, 3(7), e2776. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002776
- Herrera, P. 2020. Ganadería y cambio climático: un acercamiento en profundidad. Fundación Entretantos y Plataforma por la Ganadería Extensiva y el Pastoralismo.
- Herrera, P., Majadas-Adray, J., Esteban, A., Ramírez, N., & Rico, L. 2018. La ganadería extensiva, una actividad clave para nuestra alimentación. Plataforma por la Ganadería Extensiva y Pastoralismo, Fundación Entretantos.
- Herrero-García, G., Pérez-Sancho, M., Barroso, P., Herranz-Benito, C., Relimpio, D., García-Seco, T., Perelló, A.,DíezGuerrier, A., Pozo, P., Balseiro, A., Domínguez, L., & Gortázar, C. 2024a. One HealthFarming: Noninvasive monitoring reveals links between farm vertebrate richness and pathogen markers in outdoor hoofstock. One health 19: 100924. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.onehlt.2024.100924
- Herrero-García, G., Vaz-Rodrigues, R., Pozo, P., Barroso, P., Relimpio, D., Nácar, J., Grau, A., Mínguez, O., García Rodríguez, A., Balseiro, A., & Gortázar, C. 2024b. Farm management practices and host species richness associated with higher likelihood of tuberculosis positive farms in Western Spain. Eur J Wildl Res 70, 81. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10344-024-01833-z
- Hoinville, L. J., Alban, L., Drewe, J. A., Gibbens, J. C., Gustafson, L., Häsler, B., Saegerman, C., Salman, M., & Stärk, K. D. 2013. Proposed terms and concepts for describing and evaluating animal-health surveillance systems. Preventive veterinary medicine, 112(1-2): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2013.06.006
- IPCC. 2023. Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Geneva, Switzerland, 184 pp. doi: 10.59327/IPCC/AR6- 9789291691647
- Kukielka, E., Barasona, J. A., Cowie, C. E., Drewe, J. A., Gortazar, C., Cotarelo, I., & Vicente, J. 2013. Spatial and temporal interactions between livestock and wildlife in South Central Spain assessed by camera traps. Preventive veterinary medicine, 112(3-4): 213–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2013.08.008
- Marín-Rojo, Á., Herrero-García, G., Herranz-Benito, C., Barroso, P., Relimpio, D., García-Seco, T., Perelló, A., Díez-Guerrier, A., Pozo, P., Balseiro, A., Domínguez, L., Pérez-Sancho, M., & Gortázar, C. 2025. Wildlife risk mitigation protocols reduce risk species visits and pathogen marker detection in open-air farms. Veterinary research, 56(1): 237. https://doi. org/10.1186/s13567-025-01671-0
- Martín-Bellido, M., Escribano-Sánchez, M., Mesías-Díaz, FJ., Rodríguez de la Ledesma-Vega, A., & Pulido-García, F. Sistemas extensivos de producción animal. Arch Zootec, 50:465-489.
- Martínez-Guijosa, J., Lima-Barbero, J. F., Acevedo, P., Cano-Terriza, D., Jiménez-Ruiz, S., Barasona, J. Á., Boadella, M., García-Bocanegra, I., Gortázar, C., & Vicente, J. 2021. Description and implementation of an On-farm Wildlife Risk Mitigation Protocol at the wildlife-livestock interface: Tuberculosis in Mediterranean environments. Preventive veterinary medicine, 191: 105346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2021.105346
- Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación (MAPA). 2025. Informe anual de indicadores económicos del sector vacuno de carne. El sector de la carne de vacuno en cifras, principales indicadores económicos. Madrid: MAPA.
- Renaudeau, D., Collin, A., Yahav, S., de Basilio, V., Gourdine, J.L., Collier, R.J. 2012. Adaptation to hot climate and strategies to alleviate heat stress in livestock production. Animal, Volume 6, Issue 5, 707-728, https://doi.org/10.1017/ S1751731111002448
- Ruiz, J., Herrera, PM., Barba, R., & Busqué, J. 2017. Situación de la ganadería extensiva en España (I): definición y caracterización de la extensividad en las explotaciones ganaderas en España. Madrid: Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación.
- Rushton, J. 2009. The economics of animal health and production. Wallingford: CAB International.
- Varijakshapanicker, P., Mckune, S., Miller, L., Hendrickx, S., Balehegn, M., Dahl, G. E., & Adesogan, A. T. 2019. Sustainable livestock systems to improve human health, nutrition, and economic status. Animal frontiers : the review magazine of animal agriculture, 9(4):39–50. https://doi.org/10.1093/af/vfz041
- World Health Organization (WHO). 2023. Defining collaborative surveillance: a core concept for strengthening the global architecture for health emergency preparedness, response, and resilience (HEPR). Ginebra: WHO. Licencia: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. 11 rumiNews Septiembre 2026 | Hacia una vigilancia sanitaria integral para el ganado bovino en sistemas extensivos: Desafíos sanidad.
- World Health Organization (WHO)., Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)., & World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). 2019. Taking a Multisectoral, One Health Approach: A Tripartite Guide to Addressing Zoonotic Diseases in Countries. Geneva: WOH.
- World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). 2023. Terrestrial Animal Health Code: General provisions. WOAH, 31st edition Vol.
- World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). 2024. Bluetongue in Europe: How climate change is shifting disease patterns. Disponible en: https://www.woah.org/en/article/bluetongue-in-europe-how-climate-change-is-shiftingdisease-patterns/?utm_source=chatgpt.com
- World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). 2025. Mitigating Disease Transmission Risk at the Wildlife-Livestock Interface to Facilitate Safe Trade, Paris. 34 pp. https://doi.org/10.20506/woah.3649
- World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). 2026. ¿Cómo podemos mitigar el riesgo de enfermedades en la interfaz fauna silvestre-ganado? Paris: WOAH. [citado 2026 Jun 29] Disponible en: https://www.woah.org/es/articulo/comopodemos-mitigar-el-riesgo-de-enfermedades-en-la-interfaz-fauna-silvestre-ganado/
You may be interested
Continue reading this content
Register for free or log in to access all rumiNews content.
